1. Corrections

A correction may be issued when an error in a published article requires clarification or amendment but does not invalidate the overall reliability of the research or its principal conclusions. Examples may include errors in author names or affiliations, typographical errors affecting interpretation, incorrect labels, inaccurate figures or tables, or other factual or editorial mistakes.

Requests for correction may be submitted by authors, readers, or other parties with relevant information. The editorial team will assess the nature and significance of the reported error and may consult the authors or independent experts where necessary. If a correction is justified, the journal will publish a clearly identified correction notice describing the error and the amendment made. The original article will remain available, with an appropriate link to the correction notice, and the online article will be updated or annotated where necessary to ensure transparency.

Minor typographical or formatting errors that do not affect the meaning, interpretation, or scientific integrity of an article may be corrected without issuing a separate formal correction notice, in accordance with the journal's editorial procedures.

2. Retractions

Retraction may be necessary when the findings or conclusions of a published article are substantially unreliable, or when serious breaches of research or publication ethics undermine the integrity of the work. Grounds for retraction may include, but are not limited to:

• Fabrication or falsification of research data, results, or supporting evidence.
• Plagiarism or substantial unattributed use of another person's work.
• Duplicate or redundant publication that significantly compromises the originality of the published record.
• Serious errors in data, methods, or analysis that invalidate the main findings or conclusions.
• Unethical research practices or serious violations of applicable research ethics requirements.
• Manipulation of the publication or peer-review process that compromises the credibility of the article.
• Other substantiated circumstances in which retraction is necessary to protect the integrity of the scholarly record.

Retraction is intended to correct the scholarly record, not to punish authors. The journal will assess each case individually, consider the available evidence, and follow a fair process before making a decision. Author agreement is desirable where possible, but the journal may proceed with a retraction when justified even if the authors disagree or do not respond.

When an article is retracted, the journal will publish a clearly labelled retraction notice explaining the reason for retraction to the extent that it can be disclosed appropriately. The notice will be linked to the original article, and the article will remain accessible where possible with a prominent retraction watermark or equivalent notice. The journal will not silently remove a published article from the scholarly record except where removal is legally required or necessary to address exceptional risks.

3. Expressions of Concern

An expression of concern may be published when credible questions arise regarding the reliability or ethical integrity of a published article, but the available evidence is insufficient to support an immediate correction or retraction, or an investigation has not yet been completed. This notice informs readers that the article is subject to an unresolved concern.

The journal will review the matter as further information becomes available and may subsequently publish a correction, retract the article, or remove the expression of concern if the issue is resolved and the notice is no longer warranted.

4. Reporting Errors or Publication Concerns

Authors, readers, reviewers, and other interested parties may report suspected errors, unreliable findings, or potential violations of publication ethics to the editorial office. Reports should provide sufficient details to identify the published article and explain the concern, together with supporting documentation or evidence where available.

All reports will be assessed impartially. The journal may contact the corresponding author, request clarification or supporting data, consult independent experts, or seek information from relevant institutions when appropriate. The confidentiality of the process and the rights of the parties involved will be respected to the extent possible.

5. Editorial Decision and Transparency

Decisions concerning corrections, expressions of concern, and retractions are made by the journal's editorial team based on the available evidence, the seriousness of the issue, and its implications for the reliability of the scholarly record. The journal may seek advice from independent experts or relevant institutions when necessary. Authors will normally be given an opportunity to respond to concerns before a final decision is made, unless exceptional circumstances require urgent action to protect readers or the integrity of the scholarly record.

All corrective notices will be handled in a timely and transparent manner. The journal will make reasonable efforts to ensure that notices are clearly identifiable, permanently linked to the affected article, and included in the article's publication record. Where applicable, the journal will also take reasonable steps to communicate corrections or retractions to relevant indexing and archiving services.

This policy is informed by established publication ethics guidance, including the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). COPE Core Practices.